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3D television
A 3D television is a television that employs techniques of 3D presentation, such as stereoscopic capture, multi-view capture, or 2D plus depth, and a 3D display—a special viewing device to project atelevision program into a realistic three-dimensional field. 3D episodes became moderately popular in the late 1990s when several shows in the USA used the technique to attract viewers and increase ratings.
3D imaging dates to the beginning of photography. In 1844, Scottish inventor and writer David Brewster introduced the Stereoscope, a device that could take photographic pictures in 3D. It was then improved by Louis Jules Duboscq and a famous picture of Queen Victoria was displayed at The Great Exhibition in 1851. By the Second World War, stereoscopic (3D) cameras for personal use were already fairly common.
3D movie development was parallel to that of 3D pictures and images. Already in 1855 the Kinematoscope was invented, i.e., the Stereo Animation Camera. The first anaglyph movie was produced in 1915 and in 1922 the first public 3D movie was displayed - The Power of Love. In 1935 the first 3D color movie was produced.
In the fifties, when TV became popular in the United States, many 3D movies were produced. The first such movie was Bwana Devil from United Artists that could be seen all across the US in 1952. One year later, in 1953, came the 3D movie House of Wax which also featured 2D sound. Alfred Hitchcock originally made his film Dial M for Murder in 3D, but for the purpose of maximizing profits the movie was released in 2D because not all cinemas were able to display 3D films. The Soviet Union also developed 3D films, with Robinson Crusoe being their first full-length movie in 1947
Subsequently, television stations started airing 3D serials based on the same technology as 3D movies.
There are several techniques to produce and display 3D moving pictures.
Common 3D display technology for projecting stereoscopic image pairs to the viewer include:
§ Anaglyphic 3D (with passive red-cyan glasses)
§ Polarization 3D (with passive polarized glasses)
§ Alternate-frame sequencing (with active shutter glasses/headgear)
§ Autostereoscopic displays (without glasses/headgear)
Single-view displays project only one stereo pair at a time. Multi-view displays either use head tracking to change the view depending of the viewing angle, or simultaneously project multiple independent views of a scene for multiple viewers (automultiscopic); such multiple views can be created on the fly using the 2D plus depth format.
Various other display techniques have been described, such as holography, volumetric display and the Pulfrich effect, that was used by Doctor Who for Dimensions in Time in 1993, by 3rd Rock From The Sun in 1997, and by the Discovery Channel's Shark Week in 2000, among others. Real-Time 3D TV (Youtube video) is essentially a form of autostereoscopic display.
Stereoscopy is most widely accepted method for capturing and delivering 3D video. It involves capturing stereo pairs in a two-view setup, with cameras mounted side by side, separated by the same distance as between a person's pupils. If we imagine projecting an object point in a scene along the line-of-sight (for each eye, in turn) to a flat background screen, we may describe the location of this point mathematically using simple algebra. In rectangular coordinates with the screen lying in the Y-Z plane (the Z axis upward and the Y axis to the right) and the viewer centered along the X axis, we find that the screen coordinates are simply the sum of two terms, one accounting for perspective and the other for binocular shift. Perspective modifies the Z and Y coordinates of the object point by a factor of D/(D-x), while binocular shift contributes an additional term (to the Y coordinate only) of s*x/(2*(D-x)), where D is the distance from the selected system origin to the viewer (right between the eyes), s is the eye separation (about 7 centimeters), and x is the true x coordinate of the object point. The binocular shift is positive for the left-eye-view and negative for the right-eye-view. For very distant object points, it is obvious that the eyes will be looking along the same line of sight. For very near objects, the eyes may become excessively "cross-eyed". However, for scenes in the greater portion of the field of view, a realistic image is readily achieved by superposition of the left and right images (using the polarization method or synchronized shutter-lens method) provided the viewer isn't too near the screen and the left and right images are correctly positioned on the screen. Digital technology has largely eliminated inaccurate superposition that was a common problem during the era of traditional stereoscopic films.[1][2]
Multi-view capture uses arrays of many cameras to capture a 3D scene through multiple independent video streams. Plenoptic cameras, which capture the light field of a scene, can also be used to capture multiple views with a single main lens.[3] Depending on the camera setup, the resulting views can either be displayed on multi-view displays, or passed for further image processing.
After capture, stereo or multi-view image data can be processed to extract 2D plus depth information for each view, effectively creating a device-independent representation of the original 3D scene. This data can be used to aid inter-view image compression or to generate stereoscopic pairs for multiple different view angles and screen sizes.
2D plus depth processing can be used to recreate 3D scenes even from a single view and convert legacy film and video material to a 3D look, though a convincing effect is harder to achieve and the resulting image will likely look like a cardboard miniature.
3D-ready TV sets are those that can operate in 3D mode (in addition to regular 2D mode), in conjunction with LCD shutter glasses, where the TV tells the glasses which eye should see the image being exhibited at the moment, creating a stereoscopic image. These TV sets usually support HDMI 1.4 and a minimum (input and output) refresh rate of 120Hz; glasses may be sold separately.
Mitsubishi and Samsung utilize DLP technology from Texas Instruments.[4] As of January 2010, Toshiba, Samsung [5], Sony, Panasonic, and LG all had plans to introduce 3D capabilities (mostly in higher-end models) in TVs available sometime in 2010.[6] 3D Blu-Ray players and DirecTV broadcasts are also expected in 2010.[6] Samsung began selling the UN55C7000, its first 3D ready TV, late in February 2010.
The Chinese manufacturer TCL has developed a 42-inch LCD 3D TV called the TD-42F, which is currently available in China. This model uses a lenticular system and does not require any special glasses. It currently sells for approximately $20,000.[8]
LG, Samsung, Sony & Philips intend to increase their 3D TV offering with plans to make 3D TV sales account for over 50% of their respective TV distribution offering by 2012. It is expected that the screens will use a mixture of technologies until there is standardisation across the industry.[9]
The entertainment industry is expected to adopt a common and compatible standard for 3D in home electronics. To present faster frame rate in high definition to avoid judder, enhancing 3-D film, televisions and broadcasting, other unresolved standards are the type of 3D glasses (passive or active), including bandwidth considerations, subtitles, recording format and a Blu-ray standard.
With improvements in digital technology, in the late 2000s, 3D movies have become more practical to produce and display, putting competitive pressure behind the creation of 3D television standards. There are several techniques for Stereoscopic Video Coding, and stereoscopic distribution formatting including anaglyph, quincunx, and 2D plus Delta.
Content providers, such as Disney, DreamWorks, and other Hollywood studios, and technology developers, such as Philips, askedSMPTE for the development of a 3DTV standard in order to avoid a battle of formats and to guarantee consumers that they will be able to view the 3D content they purchase and to provide them with 3D home solutions for all pockets. In August 2008, SMPTE established the "3-D Home Display Formats Task Force" to define the parameters of a stereoscopic 3D mastering standard for content viewed on any fixed device in the home, no matter the delivery channel. It explored the standards that need to be set for 3D content distributed via broadcast, cable, satellite, packaged media, and the Internet to be played-out on televisions, computer screens and other tethered displays. After six months, the committee produced a report to define the issues and challenges, minimum standards, and evaluation criteria, which the Society said would serve as a working document for SMPTE 3D standards efforts to follow. A follow-on effort to draft a standard for 3D content formats was expected to take another 18 to 30 months.
Production studios are developing an increasing number of 3D titles for the cinema and as many as a dozen companies are actively working on the core technology behind the product. Many have technologies available to demonstrate, but no clear road forward for a mainstream offering has emerged.
Under these circumstances, SMPTE’s inaugural meeting was essentially a call for proposals for 3D television; more than 160 people from 80 companies signed up for this first meeting. Vendors that presented their respective technologies at the task force meeting included Sensio,[10] Philips, Dynamic Digital Depth (DDD), TDVision [2], and Real D, all of which had 3D distribution technologies.
However, SMPTE is not the only 3D standards group. Other organizations such as the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA), 3D@home Consortium, ITU and the Entertainment Technology Center at USC's School of Cinematic Arts (ETC), have created their own investigation groups and have already offered to collaborate to reach a common solution. Other standard groups such as DVB,BDA, ARIB, ATSC, DVD Forum, IEC and others are to be involved in the process.[citation needed]
MPEG has been researching multi-view, stereoscopic, and 2D plus depth 3D video coding since the mid-2000s;[citation needed] the first result of this research is the Multiview Video Coding extension forMPEG-4 AVC that is currently undergoing standardization. MVC has been chosen by the Blu-ray disc association for 3D distribution. The format offers backwards compatibility with 2D Blu-ray players.[11]
HDMI version 1.4, released in June 2009, defines a number of 3D transmission formats. The format "Frame Packing" (left and right image packed into one video frame with twice the normal bandwidth) is mandatory for HDMI 1.4 3D devices. All three resolutions (720p50, 720p60, and 1080p24) have to be supported by display devices, and at least one of those by playback devices. Other resolutions and formats are optional.[12] While HDMI 1.4 cables and devices will be capable of transmitting 3D pictures in full 1080p, HDMI 1.3 does not include such support. As a out-of-spec solution for the bitrate problem, a 3D image may be displayed at a lower resolution, like interlaced or at standard definition.
3D Channels
As of 2008, 3D programming is broadcast on Japanese cable channel BS 11 approximately four times per day.
Cablevision will launch a 3D version of its MSG channel on March 24, 2010, available only to Cablevision subscribers on channel 1300.[14][15]
Starting on June 11, 2010 ESPN will launch a new channel dedicated to 3D sports with up to 85 live events a year in 3D.
Recently the British Sky Broadcasting company, better known as Sky, has announced that they will be launching a Sky 3D channel in April 2010. This will bring content such as sport, entertainment events, and other three-dimensional programming to its subscribers. The system will require a special "3D ready" television and Sky+HD DVR box.[17]
On 1 January 2010, the world's first 3D channel, SKY 3D, started broadcasting nationwide in South Korea by Korea Digital Satellite Broadcasting. The channel's slogan is "World No.1 3D Channel". This 24/7 channel uses the Side by Side technology at a resolution of 1920x1080i. 3D contents include education, animation, sport, documentary and performances.
A full 24 hour broadcast channel was announced at the 2010 Consumer Electronics show as a joint venture from IMAX, Sony, and the Discovery channel.[19] The intent is to launch the channel in theUnited States by year end 2010.
DirecTV and Panasonic plan to launch 2 broadcast channels and 1 Video on demand channel with 3D content in June 2010. DirecTV previewed a live demo of their 3D feed at the Consumer Electronics Show held January 7–10, 2010.
Sky 3D was officially launched on Saturday 3 April 2010 at pubs and clubs in UK, with a football match Manchester United vs Chelsea.
3D episodes
There have been several notable examples in television where 3D episodes have been produced, typically as one hour specials or special events. One example was the sitcom 3rd Rock From The Suntwo-part episode Nightmare On Dick Street, where several of the characters' dreams are shown in 3D. The episode cued its viewers to put on their 3D glasses by including "3D on" and "3D off" icons in the corner of the screen as a way to alert them as to when the 3D sequences would start and finish. The episode used the Pulfrich 3D technique.
Recent uses of 3D in television include the drama Medium and the comedy Chuck.
Channel 4 in the UK ran a short season of 3D programming in November 2009 including Derren Brown and The Queen in 3D.[22]
On 31 January 2010, BSKYB became the first broadcaster in the world to show a live sports event in 3D when Sky Sports screened a football match between Manchester United and Arsenal to a public audience in several selected pubs.
The 2010 52nd Grammy Awards featured a Michael Jackson Tribute Sequence in 3D, using anaglyph format. Some scenes were not in 3D due to some viewers not owning a pair of 3D format cameras.
In April the Masters Tournament will be broadcast in 3D on DirecTV and Comcast.
Types of 3D displays
Stereoscopic
Main article: Stereoscopy
Based on the principles of stereopsis, described by Sir Charles Wheatstone in the 1830s, stereoscopic technology uses a separate device for each person viewing the scene which provides a different image to the person's left and right eyes. Examples of this technology include anaglyph images and polarized glasses. Stereoscopic technologies generally involve special spectacles.
Autostereoscopic
Main article: Autostereoscopy
An evolutionary development of stereoscopy, autostereoscopic display technologies use optical trickery at the display, rather than worn by the user, to ensure that each eye sees the appropriate image. They generally allow the user to move their head a certain amount without destroying the illusion of depth. Automultiscopic displays include view-dependent pixels with different intensities and colors based on the viewing angle; this means that a number of different views of the same scene can be seen by moving horizontally around the display. In most automultiscopic displays the change of view is accompanied by the breakdown of the illusion of depth, but some displays exist which can maintain the illusion as the view changes[2]. Many companies and consumers are beginning to use the abbreviated term, Auto 3D, when reffering to 3D displays that do not require the use of glasses to view the 3D effect.
This category of display technology includes autostereograms.
Computer-generated holography
Main article: Computer Generated Holography
The hologram is a familiar artifact of the late 20th century, and research into holographic displays has produced devices which are able to create a light field identical to that which would emanate from the original scene, with both horizontal and vertical parallax across a large range of viewing angles. The effect is similar to looking through a window at the scene being reproduced; this may make CGH the most convincing of the 3D display technologies, but as yet the large amounts of calculation required to generate a detailed hologram largely prevent its application outside of the laboratory. Some companies do produce holographic imaging equipment commercially.[3]
In addition there are volumetric displays, where some physical mechanism is used to display points of light within a volume. Such displays use voxels instead of pixels. Volumetric displays include multiplanar displays, which have multiple display planes stacked up; and rotating panel displays, where a rotating panel sweeps out a volume.
Other technologies have been developed to project light dots in the air above a device. An infrared laser is focused on the destination in space, generating a small bubble of plasma which emits visible light. As of August 2008, the experiments only allow a rate of 100 dots per second. One of the issues which arise with this display system is the use of technologies that could be harmful to human eyes.
Each of these display technologies can be seen to have limitations, whether the location of the viewer, cumbersome or unsightly equipment or great cost. Overcoming the latter is perhaps the key challenge for the budding 3-dimensional imaging sector. The acquisition of artifact-free 3D images remains difficult. Photographers, videographers, and professionals in the broadcast and movie industry are unfamiliar with the complex setup required to record 3D images. There are currently no guidelines or standards for multi-camera parameters, placement, and post- production processing, as there are for conventional 2D television.
A 3-D ("three-dimensional") film or S3D ("stereoscopic 3D") film[1] is a motion picture that enhances the illusion of depth perception. Derived from stereoscopic photography, a special motion picture camera is used to record the images as seen from two perspectives (or computer-generated imagery generates the two perspectives), and special projection hardware and/or eyewear are used to provide the illusion of depth when viewing the film. 3-D films are not limited to feature film theatrical releases; television broadcasts and direct-to-video films have also incorporated similar methods, primarily for marketing purposes.
3-D films have existed in some form since 1890, but until 2010 had been largely relegated to a niche in the motion picture industry because of the costly hardware and processes required to produce and display a 3-D film, and the lack of a standardized format for all segments of the entertainment business. Nonetheless, 3-D films were prominently featured in the 1950s in American cinema, and later experienced a worldwide resurgence in the 1980s and 90s driven by IMAX high-end theaters and Disney themed-venues. 3-D films became more and more successful throughout 2000-09, culminating in the unprecedented success of 3-D presentations of Avatar in December 2009, followed by the record-breaking opening of Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland in March 2010.
Stereoscopic motion pictures can be produced through a variety of different methods. Over the years the popularity of various systems being widely employed in movie theaters has waxed and waned. Though anaglyph (see next section) was sometimes used prior to 1948, during the early "Golden Era" of 3-D cinematography of the 1950s the polarization system was used for every single feature length movie in the United states, and all but one short film.[2] In the 21st century, polarization 3-D systems have continued to dominate the scene, though during the 60s and 70s some classic films which were converted to anaglyph for theaters not equipped for polarization, and were even shown in 3D on TV.[3] In the years following the 90s, some movies were made with short segments in anaglyph 3D. Following are some of the technical details and methodologies employed in some of the more notable 3-D movie systems that have been developed:
Anaglyph
The archetypical 3-D glasses, with modern red and cyan color filters, similar to the red/green and red/blue lenses used to view early anaglyph films.
Anaglyph images were the earliest method of presenting theatrical 3-D, and the one 3-D method most commonly associated with stereoscopy by the public at large, mostly because of non theatrical 3D media such as comic books and 3D TV, where polarization doesn't work. They were made popular because of the ease of their production and exhibition. Though the earliest theatrical presentations were done with this system, most 3D movies from the 50s and 80s were originally shown polarized.[4]
In an anaglyph, the two images are superimposed in an additive light setting through two filters, one red and one cyan. In a subtractive light setting, the two images are printed in the same complementary colors on white paper. Glasses with colored filters in each eye separate the appropriate images by canceling the filter color out and rendering the complementary color black.
Anaglyph images are much easier to view than either parallel sighting or crossed eye stereograms, although the latter types offer bright and accurate color rendering, particularly in the red component, which is muted, or desaturated with even the best color anaglyphs. A compensating technique, commonly known as Anachrome, uses a slightly more transparent cyan filter in the patented glasses associated with the technique. Process reconfigures the typical anaglyph image to have less parallax.
An alternative to the usual red and cyan filter system of anaglyph is ColorCode 3-D, a patented anaglyph system which was invented in order to present an anaglyph image in conjunction with the NTSC television standard, in which the red channel is often compromised. ColorCode uses the complementary colors of yellow and dark blue on-screen, and the colors of the glasses' lenses are amber and dark blue.
The anaglyph 3-D system was the earliest system used in theatrical presentations and requires less specialized hardware, but the polarization 3-D system has been the standard for theatrical presentations since it was used for Bwana Devil in 1952,[4]though early Imax presentations were done using the eclipse system and in the 60s and 70s classic 3D movies were sometimes converted to anaglyph for special presentations. The polarization system has better color fidelity and less ghosting than the anaglyph system.
In the post-50's era, anaglyph has been used instead of polarization in feature presentations where only part of the movie is in 3D such as in the 3D segment of Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare and the 3D segments of Spy Kids 3D.
Polarization systems
Further information: Polarized 3D glasses
To present a stereoscopic motion picture, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through different polarizing filters. The viewer wears low-cost eyeglasses which also contain a pair of different polarizing filters. As each filter passes only that light which is similarly polarized and blocks the light polarized in the opposite direction, each eye sees a different image. This is used to produce a three-dimensional effect by projecting the same scene into both eyes, but depicted from slightly different perspectives. Since no head tracking is involved, several people can view the stereoscopic images at the same time. Either linear or circular polarizing filters can be used, as long as different orientations (horizontal vs. vertical, or clockwise vs. counterclockwise) are used for each eye.
Resembling sunglasses, polarized glasses are the standard for theatrical releases and theme park attractions.
In the case of RealD a circularly polarizing liquid crystal filter which can switch polarity 144 times per second is placed on front of the projector lens. Only one projector is needed, as the left and right eye images are displayed alternately. Sonyfeatures a new system called RealD XLS, which shows both circular polarized images simultaneously: a single 4K projector (4096×2160 resolution) displays both 2K images (2048×858 resolution) above each other at the same time, a special lens attachment polarizes and projects the images on top of each other.[5]
Thomson Technicolor have produced a system using a split lens which allows traditional 35mm projectors to be adapted to project in 3D using over/under 35mm film. This is a very cost-effective way to convert a screen as all that is needed is the lens and silver screen rather than converting entirely to digital.[6]
Polarized stereoscopic pictures have been around since 1936, when Edwin H. Land first applied it to motion pictures. The so called "3-D movie craze" in the years 1952 through 1955 was almost entirely offered in theaters using polarizing projection and glasses. Only a minute amount of the total 3D films shown in the period used the anaglyph color filter method.
In the 2000s, computer animation, competition from DVDs and other media, digital projection, and the use of sophisticated IMAX 70mm film projectors, have created an opportunity for a second wave of polarized 3D films.[7][8]
Eclipse method
With the eclipse method, a mechanical shutter blocks light from each appropriate eye when the converse eye's image is projected on the screen. The projector alternates between left and right images, and opens and closes the shutters in the glasses or viewer in synchronization with the images on the screen. This was the basis of the Teleview system which was used briefly in 1922.[9]
A pair of LCD shutter glasses used to view XpanD 3D films.
A variation on the eclipse method is used in LCD shutter glasses. Glasses containing liquid crystal that will let light through in synchronization with the images on the computer display or TV, using the concept of alternate-frame sequencing. This is the method used by nVidia, XpanD 3D, and earlier IMAX systems. A drawback of this method is the need for each person viewing to wear expensive, electronic glasses that must be synchronized with the display system using a wireless signal or attached wire.
Interference filter technology
Dolby 3D uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Eyeglasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a 3D image. This technology eliminates the expensive silver screens required for polarized systems such as RealD, which is the most common 3D display system in theaters. It does, however, require much more expensive glasses than the polarized systems. It is also known as wavelength multiplex visualization.
Pulfrich
The Pulfrich effect is based on the phenomenon of the human eye processing images more slowly when there is less light, as when looking through a dark lens.
Imagine a camera which starts at position X and moves right to position Y as shown by the arrow. If a viewer watches this segment with a dark lens over the left eye, then when the right eye sees the image recorded when the camera is at Y, the left eye will be a few milliseconds behind and will still be seeing the image recorded at X, thus creating the necessary parallax to generate right and left eye views and 3D perception, much the same as when still pictures are generated by shifting a single camera. The intensity of this effect will depend on how fast the camera is moving relative to the distance to the objects; greater speed creates greater parallax. A similar effect can be achieved by using a stationary camera and continuously rotating an otherwise stationary object. If the movement stops, the eye looking through the dark lens (which could be either eye depending on the direction the camera is moving) will "catch up" and the effect will disappear. One advantage of this system is that people not wearing the glasses will see a perfectly normal picture.
Of course, incidental movement of objects will create spurious artifacts, and these incidental effects will be seen as artificial depth not related to actual depth in the scene. Unfortunately, many of the applications of pulfrich involve deliberately causing just this sort of effect and this has given the technique a bad reputation. When the only movement is lateral movement of the camera then the effect is as real as any other form of stereoscopy, but this seldom happens except in highly contrived situations.
Though pulfrich has been used often on TV and in computer games, it is rarely if ever used in theatrical presentations.
Spectral separation
ChromaDepth uses a holographic film in the glasses that creates an effect like a dispersive prism. This causes redder objects to be perceived as near and bluer objects as farther away.
Lenticular or barrier screens
In this method, glasses are not necessary to see the stereoscopic image.
Both images are projected onto a high-gain, corrugated screen which reflects light at acute angles. In order to see the stereoscopic image, the viewer must sit within a very narrow angle that is nearly perpendicular to the screen, limiting the size of the audience. Lenticular was used for theatrical presentation of numerous shorts in Russia from 1940-1948[3] and in 1954 for the feature length films Crystal, Machine 22-12 and The Pencil on Ice.[10]
Though its use in theatrical presentations has been rather limited, lenticular has been widely used for a variety of novelty items and has even been used in amateur 3D photography.[11][12]
New systems without glasses
There is increasing emergence of new 3-D viewing systems which do not require the use of special viewing glasses. These systems are referred to as Autostereoscopic displays. The first Autostereoscopic mobile phone was launched by Hitachi in 2009 in Japan and in 2010 China mobile is to launch its version. Manufacturing trials are being run for TV and for LCD for PC. For the personal computing gaming market the first probable commercial application will be handheld gaming devices, such as the Nintendo 3DS. These systems do not yet appear to be applicable to theatrical presentations.
]Early patents and tests
The stereoscopic era of motion pictures began in the late 1890s when British film pioneer William Friese-Greene filed a patent for a 3-D movie process. In his patent, two films were projected side by side on screen. The viewer looked through a stereoscope to converge the two images. Because of the obtrusive mechanics behind this method, theatrical use was not practical.[13] Frederick Eugene Ives patented his stereo camera rig in 1900. The camera had two lenses coupled together 1 3/4 inches apart.[14]
On June 10, 1915, Edwin S. Porter and William E. Waddell presented tests to an audience at the Astor Theater in New York City. In red-green anaglyph, the audience was presented three reels of tests, which included rural scenes, test shots of Marie Doro, a segment of John Mason playing a number of passages from Jim the Penman (a film released by Famous Players-Lasky that year, but not in 3-D), Oriental dancers, and a reel of footage of Niagara Falls.[15] However, according to Adolph Zukor in his 1953 autobiography The Public Is Never Wrong: My 50 Years in the Motion Picture Industry, nothing was produced in this process after these tests.
Early systems of stereoscopic filmmaking (pre-1952)
The earliest confirmed 3-D film shown to a paying audience was The Power of Love, which premiered at the Ambassador Hotel Theater in Los Angeles on September 27, 1922.[16][17][18] The camera rig was a product of the film's producer, Harry K. Fairall, and cinematographer Robert F. Elder.[13] It was projected dual-strip in the red/green anaglyph format, making it both the earliest known film that utilized dual strip projection and the earliest known film in which anaglyph glasses were used.[19] Whether Fairall used colored filters on the projection ports or whether he used tintedprints is unknown. After a preview for exhibitors and press in New York City, the film dropped out of sight, apparently not booked by exhibitors, and is now considered lost.
Early in December 1922, William Van Doren Kelley, inventor of the Prizma color system, cashed in on the growing interest in 3-D films started by Fairall's demonstration and shot footage with a camera system of his own design. Kelley then struck a deal with Samuel "Roxy" Rothafel to premiere the first in his series of "Plasticon" shorts entitled Movies of the Future at the Rivoli Theater[disambiguation needed] in New York City .
Kelley, who was an early producer of color films, used Prizma to print his anaglyph films. In early 1923, he shopped around a second Plasticon entitled Through the Trees - Washington D.C., shot by William T. Crespinel, which consisted of stereoscopic views of Washington, D.C., but found no buyers.[20]
A detail from an article about the Teleview system, created by Hammond and Cassidy. Only one feature was ever produced with the system.
Also in December 1922, Laurens Hammond (later inventor of the Hammond organ) and William F. Cassidy unveiled their Teleview system. Teleview was the earliest alternate-frame sequencing form of film projection. Through the use of two interlocked projectors, alternating left/right frames were projected one after another in rapid succession. Synchronized viewers attached to the arm-rests of the seats in the theater open and closed at the same time, and took advantage of the viewer's persistence of vision, thereby creating a true stereoscopic image. The only theater known to have installed this system was the Selwyn Theater in New York. Only one show was ever produced for the system, a groups of shorts and the only Teleview feature The Man From M.A.R.S. (later re-released as Radio-Mania) on December 27, 1922 in New York City.
In 1923, Frederick Eugene Ives and Jacob Leventhal began releasing their first stereoscopic shorts made over a three-year period. The first film entitled, Plastigrams, which was distributed nationally by Educational Pictures in the red/blue anaglyph format. Ives and Leventhal then went on to produce the following stereoscopic shorts in the "Stereoscopiks Series" for Pathé Films in 1925: Zowie (April 10), Luna-cy (May 18), The Run-Away Taxi (December 17) and Ouch(December 17).[22]
The late 1920s to early 1930s saw little to no interest in stereoscopic pictures, largely due to the Great Depression. In Paris, Louis Lumiere shot footage with his stereoscopic camera in September 1933. The following year, in March 1934, he premiered his remake of his 1895 film L'Arrivée du Train, this time in anaglyphic 3-D, at a meeting of the French Academy of Science.[23]
In 1936, Leventhal and John Norling were hired based on their test footage to film MGM's Audioscopiks series. The prints were by Technicolor in the red/green anaglyph format, and were narrated by Pete Smith. The first film,Audioscopiks, premiered January 11, 1936 and The New Audioscopiks premiered January 15, 1938. Audioscopiks was nominated for the Academy Award in the category Best Short Subject, Novelty in 1936.
With the success of the two Audioscopiks films, MGM produced one more short in anaglyph 3-D, another Pete Smith Specialty called Third Dimensional Murder (1941). Unlike its predecessors, this short was shot with a studio-built camera rig. Prints were by Technicolor in red/blue anaglyph. The short is notable for being one of the few live-action appearances of the Frankenstein Monster as conceived by Jack Pierce for Universal Studios outside of their company.
While many of these films were printed by color systems, none of them was actually in color, and the use of the color printing was only to achieve an anaglyph effect.
Introduction of Polaroid
While attending Harvard University, Edwin H. Land conceived the idea of reducing glare by polarizing light. He took a leave of absence from Harvard to set up a lab and by 1929 had invented and patented a polarizing sheetIn 1932, he introduced Polaroid J Sheet as a commercial product. While his original intention was to create a filter for reducing glare from car headlights, Land did not underestimate the utility of his newly dubbed Polaroid filters in stereoscopic presentations.
In January 1936, Land gave the first demonstration of Polaroid filters in conjunction with 3-D photography at the Waldorf-Astoria HotelThe reaction was enthusiastic, and he followed it up with an installation at the New York Museum of Science. It is unknown what film was run for audiences with this installation.
Using Polaroid filters meant an entirely new form of projection, however. Two prints, each carrying either the right or left eye, had to be synced up in projection using an external selsyn motor. Furthermore, polarized light would not register on a matte white screen, and only a silver screen or screen made of other reflective material would correctly reflect the separate images.
Later that year, the feature, Nozze Vagabonde appeared in Italy, followed in Germany by Zum Greifen Nah (You Can Nearly Touch It), and again in 1939 with Germany's Sechs Mädel Rollen Ins Wochenend (Six Girls Drive Into the Weekend). The Italian film was made with the Gualtierotti camera; the two German productions with the Zeiss camera and the Vierling shooting system. All of these films were the first exhibited using Polaroid filters. The Zeiss Company in Germany manufactured glasses on a commercial basis commencing in 1936; they were also independently made around the same time in Germany by E. Käsemann and by J. Mahler.
In 1939, John Norling shot In Tune With Tomorrow, the first commercial 3-D film using Polaroid in the USThis short premiered at the 1939 New York World's Fair and was created specifically for the Chrysler Motor Pavilion. In it, a full 1939 Chrysler Plymouth is magically put together, set to music. Originally in black and white, the film was so popular that it was re-shot in color for the following year at the fair, under the title New Dimensions[citation needed]. In 1953, it was reissued by RKO as Motor Rhythm.
Another early short that utilized the Polaroid 3-D process was 1940's Magic Movies: Thrills For You produced by the Pennsylvania Railroad Co. for the Golden Gate International Exposition[citation needed]. Produced by John Norling, it was actually shot for him by Jacob Leventhal using his own rig. It consisted of shots of various views that could be seen on Pennsylvania Railroad's trains.
The 1940s was further hindered by World War II, and stereoscopic photography once again went on the back-burner in most producers' minds.
The "golden era" (1952–1955)
What aficionados consider the "golden era" of 3-D began in 1952 with the release of the first color stereoscopic feature, Bwana Devil, produced, written and directed by Arch Oboler. The film was shot in Natural Vision, a process that was co-created and controlled by M. L. Gunzberg. Gunzberg, who built the rig with his brother, Julian, and two other associates, shopped it without success to various studios before Oboler used it for this feature, which went into production with the title, The Lions of Gulu. The film starred Robert Stack, Barbara Britton and Nigel Bruce.
As with practically all of the features made during this boom, Bwana Devil was projected dual-strip, with Polaroid filters. During the 1950s, the familiar disposable anaglyph glasses made of cardboard were mainly used for comic books, two shorts by exploitation specialist Dan Sonney, and three shorts produced by Lippert Productions. However, even the Lippert shorts were available in the dual-strip format alternatively.
Because the features utilized two projectors, a capacity limit of film being loaded onto each projector (about 6,000 feet (1,800 m), or an hour's worth of film) meant that an intermission was necessary for every movie. Quite often, intermission points were written into the script of the film at a major plot point.
During Christmas of 1952, producer Sol Lesser quickly premiered the dual-strip showcase called Stereo Techniques in Chicago. Lesser acquired the rights to five dual-strip shorts. Two of them, Now is the Time (to Put On Your Glasses) and Around is Around, were directed by Norman McLaren in 1951 for the National Film Board of Canada. The other three films were produced in Britain for Festival of Britain in 1951 by Raymond Spottiswoode. These were A Solid Explanation, Royal River, and The Black Swan.
James Mage was also an early pioneer in the 3-D craze. Using his 16 mm 3-D Bolex system, he premiered his Triorama program on February 10, 1953 with his four shorts: Sunday In Stereo, Indian Summer, American Life, and This is Bolex Stereo. This show is considered lost.
Another early 3-D film during the boom was the Lippert Productions short, A Day in the Country, narrated by Joe Besser and composed mostly of test footage. Unlike all of the other Lippert shorts, which were available in both dual-strip and anaglyph, this production was released in anaglyph only.
April 1953 saw two groundbreaking features in 3-D: Columbia's Man in the Dark and Warner Bros. House of Wax, the first 3-D feature with stereophonic sound. House of Wax, outside of Cinerama, was the first time many American audiences heard recorded stereophonic sound. It was also the film that typecast Vincent Price as a horror star as well as the "King of 3-D" after he became the actor to star in the most 3-D features ( the others were The Mad Magician, Dangerous Mission, and Son of Sinbad ). The success of these two films proved that major studios now had a method of getting moviegoers back into theaters and away from television sets, which were causing a steady decline in attendance.
The Walt Disney Studios waded into 3-D with its May 28, 1953 release of Melody, which accompanied the first 3-D western, Columbia's Fort Ti at its Los Angeles opening. It was later shown at Disneyland's Fantasyland Theater in 1957 as part of a program with Disney's other short Working for Peanuts, entitled, 3-D Jamboree. The show was hosted by the Mousketeers and was in color.
Universal-International released their first 3-D feature on May 27, 1953, It Came from Outer Space, with stereophonic sound. Following that was Paramount's first feature, Sangaree with Fernando Lamas and Arlene Dahl.
Columbia produced several 3-D westerns produced by Sam Katzman and directed by William Castle. Castle would later specialize in various technical in-theater gimmicks for such Columbia features as 13 Ghosts, House on Haunted Hill, and The Tingler. Columbia also produced the only slapstick comedies conceived for 3-D. The Three Stooges starred in Spooks and Pardon My Backfire; dialect comic Harry Mimmo starred in Down the Hatch. Producer Jules White was optimistic about the possibilities of 3-D as applied to slapstick (with pies and other projectiles aimed at the audience), but only two of his stereoscopic shorts were shown in 3-D. Down the Hatch was released as a conventional, "flat" motion picture. (Columbia has since printed Down the Hatch in 3-D for film festivals.)
John Ireland, Joanne Dru and Macdonald Carey starred in the Jack Broder color production Hannah Lee, which premiered June 19, 1953. The film was directed by Ireland, who sued Broder for his salary. Broder counter-sued, claiming that Ireland went over production costs with the film.
Another famous entry in the golden era of 3-D was the 3 Dimensional Pictures production of Robot Monster. The film was allegedly scribed in an hour by screenwriter Wyott Ordung and filmed in a period of two weeks on a shoestring budget. Despite these shortcomings and the fact that the crew had no previous experience with the newly-built camera rig, luck was on the cinematographer's side, as many find the 3-D photography in the film is well shot and aligned. Robot Monster also has a notable score by then up-and-coming composer Elmer Bernstein. The film was released June 24, 1953 and went out with the short Stardust in Your Eyes, which starred nightclub comedian, Slick Slavin.
20th Century Fox produced their only 3-D feature, Inferno, starring Rhonda Fleming. Fleming, who also starred in Those Redheads from Seattle, and Jivaro, shares the spot for being the actress to appear in the most 3-D features with Patricia Medina, who starred in Sangaree, Phantom of the Rue Morgue and Drums of Tahiti. Darryl F. Zanuck expressed little interest in stereoscopic systems, and at that point was preparing to premiere the new widescreen film system, CinemaScope.
The first decline in the theatrical 3-D craze started in August and September 1953. The factors causing this decline were:
§ Two prints had to be projected simultaneously.
§ The prints had to remain exactly alike after repair, or synchronization would be lost.
§ It sometimes required two projectionists to keep sync working properly.
§ When either prints or shutters became out of sync, the picture became virtually unwatchable and accounted for headaches and eyestrain.
§ The necessary silver projection screen was very directional and caused sideline seating to be unusable with both 3-D and regular films, due to the angular darkening of these screens. Later films that opened in wider-seated venues often premiered flat for that reason (such at Kiss Me Kateat the Radio City Music Hall).
Because projection booth operators were at many times careless, even at preview screenings of 3-D films, trade and newspaper critics claimed that certain films were "hard on the eyes."
Sol Lesser attempted to follow up Stereo Techniques with a new showcase, this time five shorts that he himself produced. The project was to be called The 3-D Follies and was to be distributed by RKO. Unfortunately, because of financial difficulties and the growing disinterest in 3-D, Lesser canceled the project during the summer of 1953, making it the first 3-D film to be aborted in production. Two of the three shorts were shot: Carmenesque, a burlesque number starring exotic dancer Lili St. Cyr. and Fun in the Sun, a sports short directed by famed set designer/director William Cameron Menzies, who also directed the 3-D feature The Maze for Allied Artists.
Although it was more expensive to install, the major competing realism process was anamorphic, first utilized by Fox with Cinemascope and its September premiere in The Robe. Anamorphic features needed only a single print, so synchronization was not an issue. Cinerama was also a competitor from the start and had better quality control than 3-D because it was owned by one company that focused on quality control. However, most of the 3-D features past the summer of 1953 were released in the flat widescreen formats ranging from 1.66:1 to 1.85:1. In early studio advertisements and articles about widescreen and 3-D formats, widescreen systems were referred to as "3-D," causing some confusion among scholars.
There was no single instance of combining Cinemascope with 3-D until 1960, with a film called September Storm, and even then, that was a blow-up from a non-anamorphic negative.[citation needed] September Storm also went out with the last dual-strip short, Space Attack, which was actually shot in 1954 under the title The Adventures of Sam Space.
In December 1953, 3-D made a comeback with the release of several important 3-D films, including MGM's musical Kiss Me, Kate. Kate was the hill over which 3-D had to pass to survive. MGM tested it in six theaters: three in 3-D and three flat.[citation needed] According to trade ads of the time, the 3-D version was so well-received that the film quickly went into a wide stereoscopic release.[citation needed] However, most publications, including Kenneth Macgowan's classic film reference book Behind the Screen, state that the film did much better as a "regular" release. The film, adapted from the popular Cole Porter Broadway musical, starred the MGM songbird team of Howard Keel and Kathryn Grayson as the leads, supported by Ann Miller, Keenan Wynn, Bobby Van, James Whitmore, Kurt Kasznar and Tommy Rall. The film also prominently promoted its use of stereophonic sound.
Several other features that helped put 3-D back on the map that month were the John Wayne feature Hondo (distributed by Warner Bros.), Columbia's Miss Sadie Thompson with Rita Hayworth, and Paramount's Money From Home with Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis. Paramount also released the cartoon shorts Boo Moon with Casper, the Friendly Ghost and Popeye, Ace of Space with Popeye the Sailor. Paramount Pictures released a 3-D Korean War film Cease Fire filmed on actual Korean locations in 1953.
Top Banana, based on the popular stage musical with Phil Silvers, was brought to the screen with the original cast. Although it was merely a filmed stage production, the idea was that every audience member would feel they would have the best seat in the house through color photography and 3-D. Although the film was shot and edited in 3-D, United Artists, the distributor, felt the production was uneconomical in stereoscopic form and released the film flat on January 27, 1954.[citation needed] It remains one of two "Golden era" 3- D features, along with another United Artists feature, Southwest Passage (with John Ireland and Joanne Dru), that are currently considered lost (although flat versions survive).
A string of successful 3-D movies followed the second wave. Some highlights are:
§ The French Line, starring Jane Russell and Gilbert Roland, a Howard Hughes/RKO production. The film became notorious for being released without an MPAA seal of approval, after several suggestive lyrics were included, as well as one of Ms. Russell's particularly revealing costumes.[citation needed] Playing up her sex appeal, one tagline for the film was, "It'll knock both of your eyes out!" The film was later cut and approved by the MPAA for a general flat release, despite having a wide and profitable 3-D release.[citation needed]
§ Taza, Son of Cochise, which starred Rock Hudson in the title role, Barbara Rush as the love interest, and Rex Reason (billed as Bart Roberts) as his renegade brother, released through Universal-International.
§ Two ape films: Phantom of the Rue Morgue, featuring Karl Malden and Patricia Medina, and produced by Warner Bros. and based on Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue," and Gorilla At Large, a Panoramic Production starring Cameron Mitchell, distributed through Fox.
§ Creature from the Black Lagoon, starring Richard Carlson and Julie Adams, directed by Jack Arnold. Arguably the most famous 3-D movie, and the only 3-D feature that spawned a sequel, Revenge of the Creature in 3-D (followed by another sequel, The Creature Walks Among Us, shot flat).
§ Cat-Women of the Moon, an Astor Picture starring Victor Jory and Marie Windsor. Elmer Bernstein composed the score.
§ Dial M for Murder, directed by Alfred Hitchcock and starring Ray Milland, Robert Cummings, and Grace Kelly, is considered by aficionados of 3-D to be one of the best examples of the process. Although available in 3-D in 1954, there are no known playdates in 3-D, since Warner Bros. had just instated a simultaneous 3-D/2-D release policy. The film's screening in 3-D in February 1980 at the York Theater in San Francisco did so well that Warner Bros. re-released the film in 3-D in February 1982.
§ Gog, an Ivan Tors production, dealing with realistic science fiction. The second film in Tors' "Office of Scientific Investigation" trilogy of film, which included, The Magnetic Monster and Riders to the Stars.
§ The Diamond Wizard, the only stereoscopic feature shot in Britain, released flat in both the UK and US. It starred and was directed by Dennis O'Keefe.
§ Irwin Allen's Dangerous Mission released by RKO in 1954 featuring Allen's trademarks of an all star cast facing a disaster (a forest fire).
§ Son of Sinbad, another RKO/Howard Hughes production, starring Dale Robertson, Lili St. Cyr, and Vincent Price. The film was shelved after Hughes ran into difficulty with The French Line, and wasn't released until 1955, at which time it went out flat, converted to the SuperScope process.
3-D's final decline was in the late spring of 1954, for the same reasons as the previous lull, as well as the further success of widescreen formats with theater operators. Even though Polaroid had created a well-designed "Tell-Tale Filter Kit" for the purpose of recognizing and adjusting out of sync and phase 3-D, exhibitors still felt uncomfortable with the system and turned their focus instead to processes such as CinemaScope. The last 3-D feature to be released in that format during the "Golden era" was Revenge of the Creature, on February 23, 1955. Ironically, the film had a wide release in 3-D and was well received at the box office.
Revival (1960–1979) in single strip format
Stereoscopic films largely remained dormant for the first part of the 1960s, with those that were released usually being anaglyph exploitation films. One film of notoriety was the Beaver-Champion/Warner Bros. production, The Mask (1961). The film was shot in 2-D, but to enhance the bizarre qualities of the dream-world that is induced when the main character puts on a cursed tribal mask, the film went to anaglyph 3-D. These scenes were printed by Technicolor on their first run in red/green anaglyph.
Although 3-D films appeared sparsely during the early 1960s, the true second wave of 3-D cinema was set into motion by Arch Oboler, the same producer who started the craze of the 1950s. Using a new technology called Space-Vision 3D, stereoscopic films were printed with two images, one above the other, in a single academy ratio frame, on a single strip, and needed only one projector fitted with a special lens. This so-called "over and under" technique eliminated the need for dual projector set-ups, and produced widescreen, but darker, less vivid, polarized 3-D images. Unlike earlier dual system, it could stay in perfect sync, unless improperly spliced in repair.
Arch Oboler once again had the vision for the system that no one else would touch, and put it to use on his film entitled The Bubble, which starred Michael Cole, Deborah Walley, and Johnny Desmond. As with Bwana Devil, the critics panned The Bubble, but audiences flocked to see it, and it became financially sound enough to promote the use of the system to other studios, particularly independents, who did not have the money for expensive dual-strip prints of their productions.
In 1970, Stereovision, a new entity founded by director/inventor Allan Silliphant and optical designer Chris Condon, developed a different 35 mm single-strip format, which printed two images squeezed side-by-side and used an anamorphic lens to widen the pictures through polaroid filters. Louis K. Sher (Sherpix) and Stereovision released the softcore sex comedy The Stewardesses (self-rated X, but later re-rated R by the MPAA). The film cost $100,000 USD to produce, and ran for up to a year in several marketseventually earning $27 million in North America, alone ($114 million in constant-2007 dollars) in fewer than 800 theaters, becoming the most profitable 3-Dimensional film to date, and in purely relative terms, one of the most profitable films ever. It was later released in 70 mm 3-D. Some 36 films worldwide were made with Stereovision over 25 years, using either a widescreen (above-below), anamorphic (side by side) or 70 mm 3-D formats.[citation needed] In 2009 The Stewardesses was remastered by Chris Condon and director Ed Meyer, releasing it in XpanD 3D, RealD Cinema and Dolby 3D.
The quality of the following 3-D films was not much more inventive, as many were either softcore and even hardcore adult films, horror films, or a combination of both. Paul Morrisey's Flesh For Frankenstein (aka Andy Warhol's Frankenstein) was a superlative example of such a combination.
§ Amityville 3-D
§ Comin' at Ya!
§ Friday the 13th Part III
§ Jaws 3-D
§ The Man Who Wasn't There (1983)
§ Metalstorm: The Destruction of Jared-Syn
§ Parasite
§ Silent Madness
§ Spacehunter: Adventures in the Forbidden Zone
§ Starchaser: The Legend of Orin
§ Treasure of the Four Crowns
Only Comin' At Ya!, Parasite, and Friday the 13th Part III have been officially released on VHS and/or DVD in 3-D in the United States (although Amityville 3-D has seen a 3-D DVD release in the United Kingdom). Most of the 80s 3D movies and some of the classic 50s movies such as House of Wax were released on the now defunct Video Disc (VHD) format in Japan as part of a system that used shutter glasses. Most of these have been unofficially transferred to DVD and are available on the grey market through sites such as eBay.
Rebirth of 3D (1985–2003)
In the mid 1980s, IMAX began producing non-fiction films for its nascent 3-D business, starting with "We Are Born of Stars" (Roman Kroitor, 1985). A key point was that this production, as with all subsequent IMAX productions, emphasized mathematical correctness of the 3D rendition and thus largely eliminated the eye fatigue and pain that resulted from the approximate geometries of previous 3D incarnations. In addition, and in contrast to previous 35mm based 3D presentations, the very large field of view provided by IMAX allowed a much broader 3D "stage", arguably as important in 3D film as it is theatre.
In 1986, Disney Theme Parks and Universal Studios began to use 3D films to impress audiences in special venues, Captain Eo (Francis Ford Coppola, 1986) starring Michael Jackson, being a very notable example. In the same year, the National Film Board of Canada production Transitions(Colin Low), created for Expo 86 in Vancouver, was the first IMAX presentation using polarized glasses. "Echos of the Sun" (Roman Kroitor, 1990) was the first IMAX film to be presented using alternate-eye shutterglass technology, a development required because the dome screen precluded the use of polarized technology.
From 1990 onward, numerous films were produced by all three parties to satisfy the demands of their various high-profile special attractions and IMAX's expanding 3D network. Films of special note during this period include the extremely successful "Into The Deep" (Graeme Ferguson, 1995) and the first IMAX 3-D fiction film Wings of Courage (1996), by director Jean-Jacques Annaud, about the author and pilot Antoine de Saint-Exupéry.
Other stereoscopic films produced in this period include:
§ The Last Buffalo (Stephen Low, 1990)
§ Jim Henson's Muppet*Vision 3D (Jim Henson, 1991)
§ Imagine (John Weiley, 1993)
§ Honey, I Shrunk the Audience (Daniel Rustuccio, 1994)
§ Into the Deep (Graeme Ferguson, 1995)
§ Across the Sea of Time (Stephen Low, 1995)
§ Wings of Courage (Jean-Jacques Annaud, 1996)
§ L5, First City in Space (Graeme Ferguson, 1996)
§ T2 3-D: Battle Across Time (James Cameron, 1996)
§ Paint Misbehavin' (Roman Kroitor and Peter Stephenson, 1997)
§ IMAX Nutcracker (1997)
§ The Hidden Dimension (1997)
§ T-Rex - Back to the Cretaceous (Brett Leonard, 1998)
§ Mark Twain's America (Stephen Low, 1998)
§ Siegfried & Roy: The Magic Box (Brett Leonard, 1999)
§ Galapagos (Al Giddings and David Clark, 1999)
§ Encounter in the Third Dimension (Ben Stassen, 1999)
§ Alien Adventure (Ben Stassen, 1999)
§ Ultimate G's (2000)
§ Cyberworld (Hugh Murray, 2000)
§ Cirque du Soleil - Journey of Man (Keith Melton, 2000)
§ Haunted Castle (Ben Stassen, 2001)
§ Space Station 3D (Toni Myers, 2002)
§ SOS Planet (Ben Stassen, 2002)
§ Ocean Wonderland (2003)
§ Falling in Love Again (Munro Ferguson, 2003)
§ Misadventures in 3D (Ben Stassen, 2003)
By 2004, 54% (133 theaters of 248) of the IMAX community was 3D-capable.[31]
Shortly thereafter, higher quality computer animation, competition from DVDs and other media, digital projection, digital video capture, and the use of sophisticated IMAX 70mm film projectors, created an opportunity for another wave of 3D films.[7][8]
3D Re-enters Mainstream Cinema (2003–present)
In 2003, Ghosts of the Abyss (James Cameron) was released as the first full-length 3-D IMAX feature filmed with the Reality Camera System. This camera system used the latest HD video cameras, not film, and was built for Cameron by Vince Pace, to his specifications. The same camera system was used to film Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over (2003), Aliens of the Deep IMAX (2005), and The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D (2005).
In 2004, Las Vegas Hilton released Star Trek: The Experience which included two films. One of the films, Borg Invasion 4-D (Ty Granoroli), was in 3D. In August of the same year, rap group Insane Clown Posse released their ninth studio album Hell's Pit. One of two versions of the album contained a DVD featuring a 3-D short film for the track "Bowling Balls", shot in high-definition video.[32]
In November 2004, The Polar Express was released as IMAX's first full-length, animated 3-D feature. It was released in 3,584 theaters in 2D, and only 66 IMAX locations. The return from those few 3-D theaters was about 25% of the total. The 3-D version earned about 14 times as much per screen as the 2D version. This pattern continued and prompted a greatly intensified interest in 3-D and 3-D presentation of animated films.
In June 2005, The Mann's Chinese 6 theatre (now Grauman's Chinese Theatre) in Hollywood became the first commercial movie theatre to be equipped with the Digital 3D format. Both Singin' in the Rain and The Polar Express were tested in the Digital 3D format over the course of several months. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released Chicken Little in digital 3-D format.
In 2007, Scar 3D premiered internationally (the film has yet to be released in the US). It was the first feature length narrative 3D movie to be completed in a completely digital workflow. The production workflow was designed by NHK and DitlevFilms. The postproduction process was designed and implemented by Christian Ditlev Bruun (DitlevFilms) and included FotoKem and Technicolor in Los Angeles. Final stereoscopic adjustments were done in Skip City in Kawaguchi[disambiguation needed], Japan. In January 2008, 3ality Digital and National Geographic Entertainment released U2 3D, the first live-action movie to be totally shot in digital 3D using software and camera technology developed by 3ality Digital.
The Butler's in Love, a short film directed by David Arquette and starring Elizabeth Berkley and Thomas Jane,[33] was released on June 23, 2008. The film was shot the former Industrial Light & Magic studios using KernerFX's prototype Kernercam stereoscopic camera rig.
Ben Walters suggests that both filmmakers and film exhibitors regain interest in 3-D film. There are now more 3-D exhibition equipments, and more dramatic films being shot in 3-D format. One incentive is that the technology is more mature. Shooting in 3-D format is less limited, and the result is more stable. Another incentive is the fact that while 2-D ticket sales are in an overall state of decline, revenues from 3-D tickets continue to grow.
Through the entire history of 3D presentations, techniques to convert existing 2D images for 3D presentation have existed. Few have been effective or survived. The combination of digital and digitized source material with relatively cost-effective digital post-processing has spawned a new wave of conversion products. In June 2006, IMAX and Warner Bros. released Superman Returns including 20 minutes of 3-D images converted from the 2-D original digital footage. George Lucas has announced that he may re-release his Star Wars films in 3-D based on a conversion process from the company In-Three.
Animated films Open Season, and The Ant Bully, were released in Analog 3D in 2006. Monster House and The Nightmare Before Christmas were released on XpanD 3D, RealD and Dolby 3D systems in 2006.
In late 2005, Steven Spielberg told the press he was involved in patenting a 3-D cinema system that does not need glasses, and which is based on plasma screens. A computer splits each film-frame, and then projects the two split images onto the screen at differing angles, to be picked up by tiny angled ridges on the screen.[citation needed]
On May 19, 2007 Scar3D opened at the Cannes Film Market. It was the first US produced 3D full length feature film to be completed in Real D 3D. It has been the #1 film at the box office in several countries around the world, including Russia where it opened in 3D on 295 screens.
Other 2008 3-D films included Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert, Journey to the Center of the Earth, and Bolt.
On January 16, 2009, Lionsgate released My Bloody Valentine 3D, the first horror film and first R-rated film to be projected in Real D 3D.[35] It was released to 1,033 3D screens, the most ever for this format, and 1,501 regular screens.
On May 7, 2009 the British Film Institute commissioned a 3D film installation. The film Radio Mania: An Abandoned Work consists of two screens of stereoscopic 3D film with 3D Ambisonic sound. It stars Kevin Eldon and is by British artists Iain Forsyth and Jane Pollard.
The first 3-D Webisode series was Horrorween starting September 1, 2009.
Major 3-D films in 2009 included Coraline, Monsters vs. Aliens, Up, X Games 3D: The Movie, The Final Destination, and Avatar.[36] Avatar has gone on to be the most expensive film of all time, with a budget rumoured to be $500 million; it is also the highest-grossing film of all time. The main presentation technologies were Real D 3D, Dolby 3D, XpanD 3D, MasterImage 3D, and IMAX 3D.
The World 3-D Expositions
In September 2003, Sabucat Productions organized the first World 3-D Exposition, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the original craze. The Expo was held at Grauman's Egyptian Theatre. During the two-week festival, over 30 of the 50 "golden era" stereoscopic features (as well as shorts) were screened, many coming from the collection of film historian and archivist Robert Furmanek, who had spent the previous 15 years painstakingly tracking down and preserving each film to its original glory. In attendance were many stars from each film, respectively, and some were moved to tears by the sold-out seating with audiences of film buffs from all over the world who came to remember their previous glories.
In May 2006, the second World 3-D Exposition was announced for September of that year, presented by the 3-D Film Preservation Fund. Along with the favorites of the previous exposition were newly discovered features and shorts, and like the previous Expo, guests from each film. Expo II was announced as being the locale for the world premiere of several films never before seen in 3-D, including The Diamond Wizard and the Universal short, Hawaiian Nights with Mamie Van Doren and Pinky Lee. Other "re-premieres" of films not seen since their original release in stereoscopic form included Cease Fire!, Taza, Son of Cochise, Wings of the Hawk, and Those Redheads From Seattle. Also shown were the long-lost shorts Carmenesque and A Day in the Country (both 1953) and William Van Doren Kelley's two Plasticon shorts (1922 and 1923).
Development of education
In November 2009, Emily Carr University of Art and Design and Lucasfilm spinoff, Kerner Studios, announced the establishment of a stereoscopic 3-D research studio. The studio will undertake local film production, experimental film and the establishment of certification and degree-level education of stereographers.[37]
Criticisms
Most of the cues required to provide humans with relative depth information are already present in traditional 2D films. For example, closer objects occlude further ones, distant objects are desaturated and hazy relative to near ones, and the brain subconsciously "knows" the distance of many objects when the height is known (e.g. a human figure subtending only a small amount of the screen is more likely to be 2 m tall and far away than 10 cm tall and close). In fact, only two of these depth cues are not already present in 2D films: stereopsis (or parallax) and the focus of the eyeball (accommodation).
3D filmmaking addresses accurate presentation of stereopsis but not of accommodation, and has therefore been criticized[by whom?] as insufficient. However, promising results from research aimed at overcoming this shortcoming were presented at the 2010 Stereoscopic Displays and Applications conference in San Jose, USA.[38]
§ List of 3-D films
§ 3-D Film Preservation Fund
§ 3D television
§ 3D display
§ Autostereoscopy
§ Stereoscopy
§ Volumetric display
§ RealD Cinema
§ 4-D film
1. ^ Filmmakers like S3D's emotional wallop - Entertainment News, Technology News, Media - Variety
2. ^ Amazing 3D by Hal Morgan and Dan Symmes Little, Brown & Company (Canada) Limited, pages 165-168
3. ^ a b Amazing 3D by Hal Morgan and Dan Symmes Little, Brown & Company (Canada) Limited, page 163
4. ^ a b Amazing 3D by Hal Morgan and Dan Symmes Little, Broawn & Company (Canada) Limited, pages 165-169
5. ^ Sony Digital Cinema 3D presentation
6. ^ Technicolor 3D
7. ^ a b Movie Ticket Sales Surpass DVD Numbers : NPR
8. ^ a b Manjoo, Farhad. A look at Disney and Pixar's 3-D movie technology. 2008.04.09. Downloaded 2009.06.07
9. ^ Amazing 3D by Hal Morgan and Dan Symmes Little, Broawn & Company (Canada) Limited, pages 15-16
10. ^ Amazing 3D by Hal Morgan and Dan Symmes Little, Brown & Company (Canada) Limited, page 166-167
11. ^ Make Your own Stereo Pictures Julius B. Kaiser The Macmillan Company 1955 pp. 12-13 Lentic corporation handled the processing as well
12. ^ Son of Nimslo, John Dennis, Stereo World May/June 1989 pages 34-36
13. ^ a b Limbacher, James L. Four Aspects of the Film. 1968.
14. ^ Norling, John A. "Basic Principles of 3-D Photography and Projection" New Screen Techniques, P. 48
15. ^ Denig, Lynde. "Stereoscopic Pictures Screened" Moving Picture World, June 26, 1915, P. 2072.
16. ^ imdb.com
17. ^ silentera.com
18. ^ Ray Zone, Stereoscopic cinema & the origins of 3-D film (University Press of Kentucky, 2007) ISBN 0813124611, p. 110
19. ^ "3-D Power" Article about the making of "The Power of Love" by Daniel L. Symmes
20. ^ a b "3-D Lost and Found," by Daniel L. Symmes
21. ^ "The Chopper," article by Daniel L. Symmes
22. ^ SEZIONI99-REDISC-TECN
23. ^ [1] "L’Arrivée du 3-D" article by Betsy A. MCLane
24. ^ Instant History
25. ^ Edwin Herbert Land
26. ^ Weber, Frank A., M.Sc (1953). "3-D in Europe", New Screen Techniques. 71.
27. ^ Gunzberg, M.L. (1953). "What is Natural Vision?", New Screen Techniques. 55-59.
28. ^ “Lesser Acquires Rights to British Tri-Opticon.” BoxOffice Oct. 25, 1952: 21.
29. ^ "Just Like 1927." BoxOffice Feb. 7, 1953: 12.
30. ^ Amazing 3D by Hal Morgan and Dan Symmes Little, Broawn & Company (Canada) Limited, pages 104-105
31. ^ IMAX Corporation Annual Report, 2004, page 7.
32. ^ Anderson, John (March 26, 2009). "3-D not an alien concept in Hollywood". Newsday. Retrieved April 4, 2009.
33. ^ The Hollywood Reporter
34. ^ Walters, Ben. "The Great Leap Forward." Sight & Sound, 19.3. (2009) pp. 38-41.
35. ^ "Movies". Los Angeles Times. January 11, 2009. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
[dead link]
36. ^ Fact: Post-Conversion 3-D Sucks... and So Does Prime Focus
37. ^ "Vancouver Sun - Kerner, Emily Carr University team up to produce 3-D movies".
38. ^ Stereoscopic Displays and Applications XXI (2010)
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